Kidney Functions • Regulation of body fluid osmolality & volume: Excretion of water and
NaCl is regulated in conjunction with cardiovascular, endocrine, & central nervous systems •
Regulation of electrolyte balance: • Daily intake of inorganic ions (Na+, K+, Cl-, HCO3-,
H+, Ca2+, Mg+ & PO43-) • Should be matched by daily excretion through kidneys. •
Regulation of acid-base balance: Kidneys work in concert with lungs to regulate the pH in a

Function of the reproductive system  Sexual reproduction requires a male and a female of the
same species to copulate and combine their genes in order to produce a new individual who is
genetically different from his parents .  sexual reproduction relies on meiosis to shuffle the
genes , so that new combinations of genes occur in each generation , allowing some of the
offspring of survive in the constantly – changing environment .  The male reproductive system

MECHANICS OF BREATHING: INSPIRATION: Inspiration is the active part of the breathing
process, which is initiated by the respiratory control centre in medulla oblongata (Brain stem).
Activation of medulla causes a contraction of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles leading to
an expansion of thoracic cavity and a decrease in the pleural space pressure. The diaphragm is a
dome-shaped structure that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities and is the most